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+ Managing partitions
+ ==============================================================================
+ Intro
+ ****************************************
+ One of the most important maintenance tasks that can only be done by using
+ a live CD is partitioning. No operating system allows partitioning the
+ same disk where the OS itself resides. Trying to do so is like attempting
+ to repair a car while its engine is turned on.
+ Of course, SystemRescueCD contains multiple programs that are related to
+ partitioning. Most important are GParted (graphical partitioning program),
+ GNU Parted (text-based partitioning program), fdisk and sfdisk (partition
+ table editors) and various filesystem tools (like ntfsprogs and e2fsprogs).
+ This page contains some theory about partitions and filesystems, advice for
+ choosing the right filesystem and a partitioning example by using GParted.
+ [[ important.png ]]
+ While partitioning, an user error or a bug can damage your
+ partitions.Creating a disk image of the disk to bepartitioned beforehand
+ is highly recommended.
+ [[ info.png ]]
+ The following pressentation has been made usingSystemRescueCD v 1.4.0
+ Some theory
+ ****************************************
+ What is a partition?
+ ---------------------
+ A partition is a logical division of a hard disk created so that you can
+ have different operating systems on the same hard disk or to create the
+ appearance of having separate hard drives for file management, multiple
+ users, or other purposes.
+ In Windows, a one-partition hard disk is labelled the "C:" drive ("A:" and
+ "B:" are typically reserved for diskette drives). A two-partition hard drive
+ would typically contain "C:" and "D:" drives. (CD-ROM drives typically are
+ assigned the last letter in whatever sequence of letters have been used
+ as a result of hard disk formatting, or typically with a two-partition,
+ the "E:" drive.).
+ In UNIX-based systems, a partition is used to host the / (root) file system,
+ and optionally the /opt, /usr and /home file systems. There may also be
+ a swap partition, which doesn't host any file system.
+ Each operatin system provides some kind of tool to create and manage
+ partitions. Examples of such tools are fdisk in DOS/Windows, fdisk, sfdisk
+ and parted in Linux, etc.
+ What is the difference between primary, extended and logical partitions?
+ ---------------------
+ Information about partitions is saved in so-called partition table
+ in Master Boot Record. MBR itself is only 512 bytes in size,
+ and only 64 bytes are reserved for partition table. That's not
+ enough, and there are many workarounds to bypass limitations
+ caused by the size, for example logical block addressing {{
+ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_block_addressing#LBA.2C_ATA_devices_and_Enhanced_BIOS
+ }}. Extended partitions are another workaround.
+ Partition table can only store information about four partitions. If one
+ has, for example, two GNU/Linux distributions on the same disk, both of
+ them having separate root partitions, shared /home and shared swap, the
+ partition number limit has been hit already.
+ A partition that is mentioned in the partition table is called primary
+ partition. Because of the limit, one disk can only contain 1-4 primary
+ partitions.
+ An extended partition fixes the problem simply by containing more boot
+ records, called Extended Boot Records (EBR). Each EBR contains information
+ about one logical partition and, if the extended partition contains multiple
+ logical partitions, link to the next EBR. Thus, an extended partition can
+ contain unlimited amount of logical partitions.
+ Extended partition contains only EBRs and logical partitions (and maybe
+ unallocated space). Extended partition doesn't contain any filesystem and
+ files can't be stored in it. Of course, logical partition can contain any
+ filesystem (or be unformatted).
+ Extended partition itself must be primary partition: an extended partition
+ can't be within another extended partition. In addition, a disk can contain
+ only one extended partition.
+ Logical partitions can always be used for storing data: any operating system
+ can see logical partitions. GNU/Linux distributions can be installed to
+ logical partitions as well, but Windows requires a lot of tweaking. See
+ this outdated guide {{ http://www.goodells.net/multiboot/index.htm }}.
+ What is LVM?
+ ---------------------
+ LVM means "Logical Volume Manager". It allows creating volume groups on top
+ of hard drives and logical volumes within volume groups. Logical volumes
+ are NOT the same thing as logical partitions!
+ Volume groups can be created very flexibly: a volume group can allocate,
+ for example, the first half of the first hard drive and the second half
+ of the third drive. One can even create a massive volume group containing
+ all storage he/she has.
+ The computer sees a logical volume as a partition: logical volume can be
+ left unformatted or contain any filesystem.
+ LVM has many benefits: for example, if one has three hard drives 60 gigabytes
+ each, he/she can create a 160-gigabyte partition for storing massive files
+ and/or saving some disk space. In addition, logical volumes can be resized
+ even when they're in use, so when creating logical volumes one doesn't need
+ to worry if they're too small or big - if they are, he/she can resize them
+ at any time.
+ However, resizing a logical volume doesn't resize the filesystem in
+ it, so using a filesystem that can be resized in use (online resizing)
+ is recommended. Very few filesystems can be shrinked online, but most
+ GNU/Linux filesystems (including ext3/4, ReiserFS, XFS and btrfs) can be
+ grown online. It's generally a good idea to leave unallocated space within
+ volume group, so logical volumes can later be grown without shrinking any
+ other logical volume.
+ Here come bad news for people who dualboot: Windows doesn't support LVM, it
+ sees volume groups as unformatted partitions. If you try to access volume
+ group within Windows, you're just prompted to format the partition. That
+ prompt is annoying at best and dangerous at worst.
+ More information about LVM can be found here (almost everything about LVM
+ in a single page) and here (official SystemRescueCD documentation about LVM).
+ What is a file system?
+ ---------------------
+ A file system is the way in which files are named and where they are placed
+ logically for storage and retrieval. The DOS, Windows, OS/2, Macintosh,
+ and UNIX-based operating systems all have file systems in which files are
+ placed somewhere in a hierarchical (tree) structure. A file is placed in
+ a directory (folder in Windows) or subdirectory at the desired place in
+ the tree structure.
+ The most important difference between filesystems is operating system
+ support. Some filesystems are supported by all modern operating systems,
+ but especially the newest filesystems are very rarely supported. Other
+ important limits are maximum file size, journaling support and file
+ permission metadata support.
+ The reason that file size limits exist is that all filesystems reserve a
+ fixed number of bits for storing the file size. If the size of the file,
+ in bytes, is bigger than the biggest number that can be stored in file
+ size bits, the operating system must refuse to store the file at all in
+ order to prevent data corruption.
+ File permission metadata means that the filesystem stores in the metadata
+ of the file, among other things, information about who owns the file and
+ what different users are allowed to do with the file. That metadata is
+ especially useful in multi-user environment because it mostly prevents
+ users from reading each other's files. Permissions can be bypassed, however.
+ What is journaling?
+ ---------------------
+ Ideally, data in a partition never corrupts. But, in the real world,
+ there are power failures and operating system freezes. And if a computer
+ is forcefully shut down while something is written to the drive, the write
+ operation can't be finished. That can damage the filesystem and destroy
+ any files in the partition.
+ Journaling partially fixes that problem by writing most changes to the
+ disk twice: first to a special area called journal and, after that, to
+ the filesystem itself. If power is lost while writing to the journal was
+ in progress, the partial change is just ignored and never committed to the
+ filesystem itself. If power failure or OS freeze happened while writing to
+ filesystem itself, the write operation is finished by using the information
+ in journal.
+ Journaling helps most of the time when the computer has been forcefully
+ shut down, but not always. Due to performance reasons, only some
+ write operations are written to the journal, mostly the biggest
+ operations. Of course, journaling doesn't help if that particular
+ operation that was in progress while power was lost didn't go
+ through the journal. Journaling also doesn't protect from everything:
+ for example, using ext4 filesystem in conjuction with programs that
+ write a lot of files in a short time can result in massive data loss {{
+ http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Possible-data-loss-in-Ext4-740467.html
+ }}, regardless if journaling is enabled or not.
+ In addition, journaling reduces performance. It causes more writes to
+ the disk. That's not a big problem on mechanical hard drives, but on SSDs
+ (Solid State Drives) and thumb drives write speed is much slower than read
+ speed. They also have a limited number of writing cycles, so journaling
+ reduces their lifetime. I (Jyrki) actually use ext2 and FAT32 filesystems
+ on my external SSD drive because they do NOT support journaling at all.
+ What are the differences between most popular filesystems?
+ ---------------------
+ The following table quickly describes the most important differences
+ between them.
+                            Operating system support
+ #############################################################################
+               Under             Under      Maximum    Journaling  Permissions
+              Windows         GNU/Linux    file size
+ #############################################################################
+ FAT32        Native           Built-in      4 GB         No           No
+ NTFS         Native           Included     16 EB         Yes          Yes
+ ext2    3rd party driver       Native    16 GB-2 TB*     No           Yes
+ ext3    3rd party driver       Native    16 GB-2 TB*     Yes          Yes
+ ext4           No              Native    16 GB-16 TB*    Yes          Yes
+ exFAT   Native (Vista/7)**       No         64 ZB        No           Yes
+ * Depends on cluster size
+ ** This update {{ http://support.microsoft.com/kb/955704 }} adds exFAT
+ support to Windows XP
+ Operating system support:
+ * "Native" means that the kernel supports the filesystem and the OS can
+ boot from a partition using that FS.
+ * "Built-in" means that the kernel supports the filesystem, but booting
+ from a partition containing such FS is very difficult.
+ * "Driver included" means that ntfs-3g (the driver that adds NTFS support
+ to Linux) comes with most GNU/Linux distributions.
+ * "3rd party driver" means that drivers to add filesystem support are
+ available, but must be downloaded and installed separately. The drivers
+ are Ext2 IFS and Ext2fsd.
+ * "No" means that there is no way to use the filesystem within the
+ operating system.
+ Filesystems
+ ****************************************
+ This section contains more information about most popular filesystems.
+ FAT32
+ ---------------------
+ The initial version of FAT (File Allocation Table), now referred as
+ FAT12, was designed for floppy disks. A FAT12 partition can only be up
+ to 32 megabytes in size. After that, PCs equipped with hard drives were
+ introcuded by IBM and the sizes of hard drives began growing. Microsoft
+ answered the need by developing first initial FAT16 and then final FAT16.
+ FAT16 partition can be up to two gigabytes in size. In the middle of 1990s,
+ that limit was becoming a problem. Microsoft pushed the limit up by updating
+ FAT again.
+ FAT32 was first introduced with Windows 95 OSR2. Windows 98,
+ Windows Me, Windows 2000 and newer support FAT32 too. Linux
+ kernel has supported FAT32 almost as long as Windows, but
+ booting GNU/Linux from FAT32 partition is difficult and actually
+ requires DOS to be installed in the partition as well. (more information {{
+ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAT_filesystem_and_Linux#Installing_Linux_on_and_booting_it_from_FAT_volumes_using_umsdos
+ }})
+ FAT32 partition can be up to two terabytes in size. As of now (March 2010),
+ there are hard drives that hit the limit, but don't exceed it. A single
+ file within FAT32 partition can be up to four gigabytes in size.
+ Because FAT32 is, in the end, based on FAT12, it has very few features. It
+ doesn't support file permissions, hard/symbolic links, encryption,
+ compression, alternative data streams, journaling... It lacks support for
+ nearly anything that defines a modern filesystem. However, due to very
+ few features, FAT32 is very fast filesystem if it's not fragmented or on
+ a Flash-based drive. Mind you, FAT32 fragments very fast.
+ Due to excellent operating system support, I recommend FAT32 for storing
+ files which should be accessible in both Windows and GNU/Linux. FAT32
+ is also a good filesystem on Solid State Drives and thumb drives due to
+ its performance.
+ ext2
+ ---------------------
+ Ext2 or ext2fs is the successor of extfs (extended file system). Extfs
+ didn't support separated timestamps for access, data modification and inode
+ modification. In order to add support for them, and make the filesystem
+ extendable, a new filesystem had to be created.
+ Ext2 was developed in January 1993, earlier than any other filesystem
+ mentioned in this page.
+ Because ext2 is designed for GNU/Linux, support in Linux kernel was
+ implemented immediately. The first Windows driver supporting ext2,
+ Ext2fsd 0.01, was released on 25 January 2002. Both Windows drivers
+ for ext2 work only on Windows NT operating systems (NT 4.0 up to Vista,
+isn't supported yet).
+ The best property of ext2 is extensibility. The superblock contains
+ information about which version the filesystem is (ext2, ext3 or ext4)
+ and which extensions and features are in use. By using these pieces of
+ information, the operating system or driver can decide whether or not
+ mounting the partition is safe. That's the most important reason why most
+ GNU/Linux distributions still use successors of ext2 as default filesystems.
+ Depending on cluster size, ext2 partition can be up to 2-32 terabytes in
+ size. File size limit is 16 GB-2 TB.
+ Ext2 supports file permissions, both hard and symbolic links and extended
+ file attributes. Encryption, compression and journaling are unsupported.
+ Due to lack of journaling support and existence of Windows drivers, I
+ recommend using ext2 if you're going to install GNU/Linux on a SSD drive
+ and want to be able to access files within Windows too. In fact, that's
+ exactly the setup I have.
+ However, lack of journaling support is the worst limitation of ext2. And
+ what was done in order to get rid of the limitation?
+ ext3
+ ---------------------
+ Ext3, the successor of ext2, was introduced in Linux kernel on November
+. It supports journaling, can be grown online and indexes large
+ directories.
+ Ext2 IFS and Ext2fsd can mount ext3 partition as ext2 if the journal
+ is empty. (If it's not, something is wrong - journal is always emptied
+ when the partition is unmounted or the computer is shut down.) Thus,
+ ext3 support under Windows is just as good/bad as ext2 support.
+ Partition and file size limits are the same as in ext2: partition size
+ limit is 2-32 TB and file size limit 16 GB-2 TB, depending on cluster size.
+ Due to journaling support and existence of Windows drivers, ext3 is a good
+ choice if you're going to install GNU/Linux on a mechanical hard drive
+ and want to be able to access files within Windows.
+ ext4
+ ---------------------
+ Linux kernel support for ext4, the successor of ext3, was marked stable
+ code on October 2008. Ext4 contains multiple performance and stability
+ improvements over ext3.
+ The most important new feature is extents. An extent is a contiguous area of
+ storage that has been reserved for a file. When a process starts to write
+ to a file, the whole extent is allocated even before the write operation
+ begins. The idea is that even if the file is larger than expected, it
+ doesn't fragment if it doesn't exceed the size of the extent.
+ Another important improvement is larger partition size limit: an ext4
+ partition can be even one exabyte in size. (An exabyte is a million
+ terabytes.) In addition, a directory within an ext4 partition can contain up
+ to 64 000 subdirectories (instead of 32 000, as in ext2/3) and timestamps
+ are much more accurate. The file size limit is 16 GB-16 TB, depending on
+ cluster size.
+ Unfortunately, Ext2 IFS and Ext2Fsd don't support ext4 and are unable
+ to mount ext4 partition if extents are enabled. They can be disabled,
+ but other improvements of ext4 aren't that important for most people -
+ using ext2 or ext3 is just easier.
+ Due to its features, ext4 is a good filesystem on computers that only have
+ GNU/Linux installed. Because journaling can be disabled, it is suitable
+ for Solid State Drives and thumb drives too.
+ NTFS
+ ---------------------
+ At the end of 1980s, IBM and Microsoft were developing OS/2 operating
+ system. Both companies expected OS/2 1.1, released on 1988, to be the first
+ popular operating system having a GUI, Presentation Manager. Even though it
+ didn't become too popular during its first years, Microsoft didn't complain:
+ Windows 2 didn't sell any better.
+ But on May 1990, Microsoft released Windows 3.0. Millions of copies of it
+ were sold during its first year, and Microsoft began to believe that OS/2
+ had failed due to decisions of IBM. At autumn 1990, Microsoft stopped
+ cooperating with IBM, recasted OS/2 3.0 as Windows NT and continued
+ developing it alone, leaving IBM alone with OS/2.
+ Windows NT was targeted for network file servers, and there were already
+ competition, most importantly Novell NetWare and OS/2. Among other things,
+ the filesystem of Windows NT had to be fast, space efficient and reliable.
+ NTFS (New Technology File System) was introcuded with Windows NT 3.1. Newer
+ versions of NTFS have been introduced with newer versions of Windows NT,
+ and the filesystem is most likely still under development. All versions
+ of Windows NT support NTFS, but support in Linux kernel was implemented
+ as late as on December 2003.
+ NTFS is still, in my opinion, the most feature-filled filesystem around. It
+ supports file permissions, both hard and symbolic links, encryption,
+ compression, alternative data streams, journaling... There are very few
+ features NTFS doesn't support.
+ Depending on cluster size, a NTFS partition can be up to 8 ZB-1 YB in
+ size. (A zettabyte (ZB) is a milliard terabytes and a yottabyte (YB)
+ a billion terabytes.) File size limit is 16 EB.
+ Windows 7 can only be installed on a NTFS
+ partition, and Vista requires a work-around {{
+ http://www.computersplace.com/install-windows-vista-on-a-fat32-partition/windows-vista
+ }} if one wants to install it on a FAT32 partition. Of course NTFS partitions
+ can be used for data storage as well: due to features of NTFS, I recommend
+ doing so on mechanical hard drives on Windows-only computers.
+ exFAT
+ ---------------------
+ NTFS is a great filesystem, but due to its complexity and journaling, it's
+ not suitable for Flash-based drives. Even Microsoft itself has recommended
+ using FAT32 on removable Flash media.
+ However, FAT32 only allows files up to four gigabytes in size. The limit
+ is already becoming too small, for example a DVD disc image can exceed
+ that limit. In addition, FAT32 lacks file permission support. In order
+ to get rid of these limitations, Microsoft took FAT from its grave and
+ updated it one more time.
+ ExFAT (extended FAT), also known as FAT64, was introduced with Windows CE
+.0, on November 2006. Windows Vista SP1, Windows 7 and newer support exFAT
+ too, and by installing this update {{ http://support.microsoft.com/kb/955704
+ }} Windows XP can be extended to support exFAT as well. Unfortunately,
+ the only read-write exFAT driver for GNU/Linux (Tuxera exFAT for Embedded
+ Systems) is payware.
+ The partition and file size limits of exFAT are the same: 64
+ zettabytes. Another important improvement is file permission support that,
+ oddly, is lacking in Windows Vista. In addition, a directory within an
+ exFAT partition can contain up to 2 796 202 files (instead of 65 536,
+ as in FAT32) and timestamps have become more accurate.
+ No operating system can be installed to an exFAT partition, so such
+ partitions can only be used for data storage. Due to lack of journaling
+ and support for huge files, exFAT is a good filesystem on Solid State
+ Drives and thumb drives that are only used within Windows Vista and/or 7.
+ Partitioning example
+ ****************************************
+ This section contains a partitioning example. I simulate the following
+ situation in a virtual machine:
+ I have two partitions in my disk: /dev/sda1 that contains a GNU/Linux
+ distribution, and /dev/sda2 that is a swap partition. Here we can see the
+ output of fdisk:
+ root@sysresccd /root % fdisk -l
+ Disk /dev/sda: 2097 MB, 2097152000 bytes
+heads, 63 sectors/track, 1015 cylinders
+ Units = cylinders of 4032 * 512 = 2064384 bytes
+ Disk identifier: 0x00058a4a
+    Device Boot     Start        End     Blocks   Id  System
+ /dev/sda1   *          1        812    1636960+  83  Linux
+ /dev/sda2            813       1015     409248   82  Linux swap / Solaris
+ Now I'm going to install another distribution on the same disk. First of
+ all, I need one more partition, because only one distro can be installed on
+ one partition. In addition, I want to separate /home to its own partition
+ in order to be able to share it between distributions.
+ Because the whole disk is already allocated, I must shrink at least one
+ existing partition in order to create new partitions. I'll shrink both of
+ them to half (/dev/sda1 from 1,6 gigabytes to 800 megabytes, and /dev/sda2
+ from 400 MB to 200 MB). In addition, I'll move /dev/sda2 right next to
+ /dev/sda1 to keep the partitions in order.
+ But how many partitions there will be in total? One, two,
+ three... four! Phew, I was near to paint myself into a corner. If I created
+ only primary partitions, I'd be unable to create any more partitions on
+ the disk. Thus, I'll create an extended partition instead and two logical
+ partitions within it. Then I'll be able to create more logical partitions
+ later if required.
+ There is one more challenge: moving /home to a separate partition. It's
+ very easy to move the folder itself, but the distro in /dev/sda1 will
+ surely be confused if it doesn't find /home when it boots next time. Thus,
+ I must edit its /etc/fstab and configure it to mount the /home partition
+ automatically - before booting the distro itself.
+ Now there are only two decisions left: the numbers and sizes of the new
+ partitions. I decide to install the new distro to /dev/sda5 and move /home
+ to /dev/sda6. Let /dev/sda5 be 800 megabytes and /dev/sda6 200 MB in size.
+ Now it's time to boot into SystemRescueCD. Graphical mode is required
+ this time.
+ [[ systemrescuecd.png ]]
+ I close the terminal and open GParted by clicking the third icon in the
+ bottom pane.
+ [[ gparted-00.png ]]
+ I right-click the partition /dev/sda1 and select Resize/Move.
+ [[ gparted-01.png ]]
+ I enter 799 MB as the new size, click the Free Space Following (MiB)
+ combo box and press Resize/Move.
+ [[ gparted-02.png ]]
+ I right-click now /dev/sda2 and select Resize/Move.
+ [[ gparted-03.png ]]
+ I enter 0 MB as preceding free space and 200 MB as partition size, click
+ the Free Space Following (MiB) combo box and press Resize/Move.
+ [[ gparted-04.png ]]
+ I right-click the unallocated area and select New.
+ [[ gparted-05.png ]]
+ I select Extended Partition as the partition type. The size was already
+megabytes (the maximum) and as said, an extended partition doesn't
+ contain any filesystem. I click Add.
+ [[ gparted-06.png ]]
+ I right-click the unallocated area within the extended partition and
+ select New.
+ [[ gparted-07.png ]]
+ I choose the ext4 filesystem and enter 798 MB as the partition size. After
+ that, I click first the Free Space Following (MiB) combo box and then Add.
+ [[ gparted-08.png ]]
+ I right-click the remaining unallocated space and select New one more time.
+ [[ gparted-09.png ]]
+ I choose the ext4 filesystem again. The partition size setting was already
+megabytes (the whole available space), so I just press Add.
+ [[ gparted-10.png ]]
+ [[ important.png ]]
+ The next step is to commit the changes.After that some operations, for
+ examplepartition deletion, can no longer be undone.
+ Finally I commit the changes by pressing the rightmost icon in the main bar.
+ [[ gparted-11.png ]]
+ After slowly reading the warning, I confirm my decisions by pressing Apply.
+ [[ gparted-12.png ]]
+ GParted begins to commit the changes...
+ [[ gparted-13.png ]]
+ ...and when everything is done, it shows me this window that I close.
+ [[ gparted-14.png ]]
+ Then I can see the brand new partitions.
+ Moving /home
+ ---------------------
+ I close GParted and launch Terminal by pressing the second icon in the
+ bottom pane.
+ I create directories as mount points:
+ mkdir /mnt/sda1
+ mkdir /mnt/sda6
+ Then I mount the partitions:
+ mount /dev/sda1 /mnt/sda1
+ mount /dev/sda6 /mnt/sda6
+ I move the directory:
+ mv /mnt/sda1/home/* /mnt/sda6/
+ After that, I unmount /dev/sda6, because it no longer needs to be mounted:
+ sync
+ umount /dev/sda6
+ [[ terminal.png ]]
+ As you can see, under Linux it's perfectly normal that the terminal doesn't
+ answer to the commands. Don't worry - they are really executed.
+ Now I close Terminal and launch Geany by pressing the fourth icon in the
+ bottom pane.
+ [[ geany-00.png ]]
+ I select File -> Open.
+ [[ geany-01.png ]]
+ I press File System and navigate to folder /mnt/sda1/etc.
+ [[ geany-02.png ]]
+ I double-click the file fstab.
+ [[ geany-03.png ]]
+ I add the following line:
+ /dev/sda6 /home ext4 defaults 0 2
+ Finally, I select File -> Save.
+ [[ geany-04.png ]]
+ It's a good idea to reboot the computer now and check if the distribution
+ in /dev/sda1 still works. Anyway, the disk should now be ready for the
+ new distro.
  Identifying devices in Linux
  ==============================================================================
-Line 4142 
 partitions.
+Line 4701 
 partitions.
  Then I execute fdisk, which shows me that the disk contains one DOS and
  three Linux partitions.
- # fdisk -l /dev/hdb
+ # fdisk -l /dev/sda
  Disk /dev/sda: 160.0 GB, 160041885696 bytes
 heads, 63 sectors/track, 19457 cylinders
  Units = cylinders of 16065 * 512 = 8225280 bytes

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Removed from v.21
 


changed lines


 
Added in v.22
-Removed from v.21
+Added in v.22

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